COMMUNITY RISK FACTORS AFFECTING WASH IMPLEMENTATION IN INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS CAMPS IN BORNO AND YOBE STATE, NORTH-EASTERN REGION OF NIGERIA: LESSONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Abstract

Background: Access to safe water, adequate sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services in internally displaced persons (IDP) camps in north-eastern Nigeria remains critically below international minimum standards despite significant humanitarian investment. The insurgency of Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awati wal-Jihad (Boko Haram) has displaced over 2.2 million persons across Borno, Yobe, and Adamawa States since 2009, creating protracted displacement conditions that test the limits of conventional WASH programming. Objectives: This integrative review systematically examines community-level risk factors that undermine WASH implementation in north-eastern Nigerian IDP camps and synthesizes lessons and actionable recommendations for humanitarian actors and policymakers. Methods: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, a systematic search was conducted across PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and humanitarian grey literature databases. From 2,148 initially identified records, 50 sources meeting pre-specified inclusion criteria were retained. Thematic synthesis was applied to identify and categorize community risk factors. Results: Ten major community risk factors were identified: social cohesion deficits; gender-based exclusion; leadership fragmentation; host community tensions; cultural taboos around sanitation; low hygiene literacy; security threats to WASH workers; inadequate community participation; inter-agency coordination failures; and economic marginalization. Each factor demonstrably degrades WASH outcomes independent of infrastructure quality. Waterborne disease surveillance data indicate that IDP camp populations experience cholera attack rates 4.3 times higher than surrounding host communities and acute watery diarrhea rates more than double the national average. Conclusions: Sustainable WASH outcomes in north-eastern Nigerian IDP camps require integrated community governance investment alongside physical infrastructure, gender-responsive programming as a design requirement, security-adapted delivery models, and multi-year financing frameworks aligned with the Sendai Framework, SPHERE standards, and the Sustainable Development Goals.